PR Research Final Project Essay

CHAPTER 1IntroductionThere is a widespread view in the professional world that in todays club the future of any whizz c aloneer depends critic ally on how it is viewed by key stakeholders such(prenominal) as sh arholders and investors, customers and consumers, employees, and members of the fraternity in which the troupe resides. familiar activism, globalization and recent accounting scandals take advertize reinforced this belief and deport also brought the grandness of strategical talk theory trouble into closer orbit.Not surprisingly, in that respectfore, some(prenominal) the academic and professional worlds have been suggesting examples and models that set up steps towards the strategic use of discourse theory including such ideas as combine marketing confabulation theory (Kitchen and Schultz, 1999), corporeal identity perplexity (forefront Riel and Balmer, 1997), theme trouble (Fombrun, 1996), stakeholder parley theory (Christensen and Cheney, 1994) a nd excellent semi macrocosm traffic (Grunig and Grunig, 1998).Much of this transaction has been normative in suggesting frameworks for managing communicatings and for managing trusty-stakeholder inter marchs, as opposed to a more than grounded and lucubrate understanding of the implements of fall guying and communion theory professionals and how these may unclutter a remnant in the commission of potent-stakeholder alliances.Such an understanding is, we suggest, particularly all- grievous(prenominal) stipulation the rift between the enormousness placed by CEOs and senior(a) administrators upon strategic corporal communications, that is, linking communications activi standstills with the overall incarnate system and objective lenss of the firm, and their views that in that respect is a huge under- surgery in the communications profession in the US, the UK and continental Europe because of a lack of qualified personnel and a limited understanding of what co mmunication examples actually take out a divergency (Argenti et al. , 2005 Murray and White, 2004 Van der Jagt, 2005).Against this background, I conducted primary question into works (responsibilities, roles and activities) of communications professionals in quaternity familiaritys (Siemens, Nokia, Shell and Philips) that have had consistently whole and glowing characters over the one-time(prenominal) days, despite market setbacks and negative coverage in the media.The overall betoken here was to elicit and abstractize in more detail the activities and issues that place CC as a public relation crop in utilise. This extended conceptualization is based upon a view of CC as a practice, which counselinges upon how practitioners engage in the doing the real work (Cook and Brown, 1999, p. 387) a view that, I hope, pass on stimulate conceptual debate and falsifiable explore and offer a more informed basis for practitioners to make sense of their professional realities and act upon it.CHAPTER 2REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND evaluateAccording to writers Ewen (1996) and Cutlip (1995) the professional sort of public relations (PR) communication activities undertaken by an composition to inform, persuade or former(a)wise relate to individuals and groups in its after-school(prenominal) surround developed itself, expanding in its scope and activities, because of public skepticism, governmental reform, tumultuousness and activism by dint of count the 20th century. In PRs early age as a discipline, at the height of the Industrial Revolution, power was spaciously concentrated with big rail appearance linees, although the balance has since then shifted towards powerful groups in society including governments, trade unions, investors and stockholders (Broom et al. , 1991).In response to the incr tranquillityd saliency and power of such groups, brisk argonas of expertise such as investor relations, public personal matters, issues focal tip and emp loyee communications were instituteed to the existing specialties of media relations and publicity, and PR gradually developed into a to the full fledged managerial discipline in the early 1970s (Olasky, 1987). The managerial discipline of PR has since then, as writers Van Riel (1995) and Cornelissen (2004) have documented, evolved into the managerial function of CC. The thoroughgoing contrast being that under CC communications activities and specialties (eg media relations, government relations, employee communications, community relations, advertising, investor relations, integrated design and issues focusing) have been more and more taken together and coalesced into one or a hardly a(prenominal) units or subdivisions and, fundamentally, these activities argon increasingly given shape and coordinated from the strategic interests of the makeup as a whole.Van Riel (1995 26) for example suggests in this regard that CC as a managerial function is an instrument of oversigh t by actor of which all consciously used forms of ingrained and outside(a) communication argon agree as effectively and efficiently as possible, with the overall objective of creating a favorable basis for consanguinitys with groups upon which the society is dependent.The evolution of PR into CC and its recognition as a managerial function is furthermore documented in the relatively high position of communications managers and departments (e.g. integrated communications, earthly concern Affairs or incorporate affairs) at bottom organizations hierarchical anatomical structures (Cornelissen, 2004), the rise of a new style more channel savvy corporal communications manager (Freeman, 1984 Harris and Bryant, 1986 Marion, 1998), and the widespread adoption of the CC vocabulary of stakeholders, identity and composition (Argenti, 1996 Van Riel, 1997).For example, a recent fall over of Fortune 500 companies found that sooner than using PR voice communication around publics (ie volume who mobilize themselves against an organization on the basis of or so common issue or concern to them), managing reputations with stakeholders is nowadays considered the lead philosophical system among communication departments (Hutton et al. , 2001).In reviewing these literatures that have dealt with the function and impact of communications between firms and groups in their respective environments, we observed dickens key points about the on-line(prenominal) conceptualization of CC and its embodiment as a managerial function in firms around the globe. First, theories and conjectural frameworks in these literatures implicate the importance of communications in firm-stakeholder interactions and in that sense be coming together (cf Schultz et al. , 2000 3) simply lone(prenominal) focus on the routine of communicating between a firm and stakeholders in its environment.These theories have been particularly focused on stakeholder cause and outcomes (e.g. images, reputations, relationships) established, but have paid very weeny attention to the managerial activities, professional issues and organisational contexts that purposeize CC as a managerial function (cf Vercic and Grunig, 2000). several(prenominal) work to this effect has emerged in recent years (Cornelissen, 2004 Scholes and Clutterbuck, 1998, 1997), but is inactive a long means off from fully conceptualizing and describing CC as a focus function and practice at least in comparison with new(prenominal)(a) trouble functions and practices as for warrant schema (Whittington, 2003) and accounting (Hopwood and Miller, 1994).Second, there has been little actual empirical explore into CC as a concern function, despite the recognize importance of the function and a proliferating stream of literatures that directly or indirectly bear on to it. Thus, there is a gap between theoretical deliberations on the relevancy and importance of CC, and descriptive accounts of its actua l use and embodiment in practice. We turn over that a practice-based conceptualization of CC accounts for these limitations and wills non all a framework for extended theorizing and empirical research but also a means for practitioners to attain a fuller and richer understanding of this critical management function.The giving medication of dialogue playactThe way in which communication practitioners and operational beas be organized is historic as it not only determines to a bounteous finish whether the communications function is enabled to provide strategic input into decision-making at the bodied take, but also whether the communication activities that are carried out at various places deep down the organization are streamlined and coordinated. In other words, the way in which communications is organized carries important strategic and semipolitical dimensions and is also crucial for the effective body forth and integration of communication activities. incessantl y since the 1970s, academic and practitioner writings have emphasized that firms should consolidate rather than fragment their communications by manner of speaking practitioners and available areas together into primeval organizational departments, with the purpose of pooling and enhancing communication expertise and increasing the organizational liberty and visibility of communications at heart the organization (e.g. Cook, 1973 Dozier and Grunig, 1992 Grunig and Grunig, 1998 Schultz et al. , 1993 Van Riel, 1995).Siemens, for example, has consolidated all of its communications faculty and their responsibilities into a in in incarnatedd brand and design department responsible for the strategic development and policing of the Siemens umbrella brand values, brand design and brand portfolio management, a inembodiedd communications department which includes advertising, internal communications and media relations, and a central in corporeald messages unit encompassing two seni or communications professionals responsible for developing and guarding the overall corporate humbug of Siemens and copy writers for speeches of senior managers.Such consolidation is consort to a number of research surveys (eg Cornelissen and Thorpe, 2001) now commonplace, with the exception of a few immense corporations identical General Motors which rather than bringing operating(a) areas together into a few central communications departments have devolved them as stand-alone units (eg a governmental affairs unit) or subordinated to other functions such as tender resources or finance. Generally, then, there app-ears to be a greater consolidation of communications into a few departments, yet still in separate corporate communications and marketing or corporate stigmatization departments. at bottom expectant firms, such as multidivisional firms and multinational corporations like Siemens, Nokia, Philips and Shell, the relationship between the corporate center or group nousq uarters and the various business-units is usually a major strategic issue. One key structural consideration here, is as Argenti (1998 5) suggests, to have all communications focused by centralizing the drill under one senior officer at a corporations headquarters or to decentralize activities and allow individual business units to decide how best to raftle communications.Most large multinationals like Siemens, Shell, Nokia and Philips have a combination of centralized global departments at the corporate center and decentralized local departments, aggroups and professionals in business-units around the world. Within both Philips and Siemens, the corporate branding and corporate communications departments have defined a brand charter and a number of work changees to assist professionals inside the business with their specific communication programs.The obvious reasoning behind these examples is that although bringing communications specialists together vertically into one or a fe w departments may lead to enhanced efficiency, to the ability to develop specialized, distinctive capabilities, and to ease of management by means of the centralization and consolidation of communication activities, it may not lead to coordination between communication-related departments and with other useable areas (eg human resources) outside those departments, and it risks turf wars, functional myopia, and over specialization.A horizontal structure overlaying the vertical structure, whence, is a lot seen as necessary for coordinating disparate communications tasks and activities, which also recognizes that communications with key stakeholders magnate emerge from various places inwardly the organization and that the forge of developing and executing communication programs is accordingly essentially cross-functional or cross-disciplinary (Heath, 1994). take aim structure can take various forms including multidisciplinary task or look teams, formal lines of communicatio n, govern work processes (Philips), council meetings (Shell, Siemens), communication guidelines (Siemens, Philips) a corporative vision and communications outline (Nokia) or the use of czars (senior practitioners working as integrators between departments). gargantuan organizations in both the private and public sectors generally need at least some of these horizontal structures. Particularly in multidivisional firms operating crossways geographical borders, horizontal structures do not appear to be a luxury but an absolute necessity.In recent years there has been a lot of discussion around the departmental ar set offment of communications and the reporting relationship of the central corporate affairs department (see Cornelissen, 2004). Ultimately, the interest of this discussion are about the professional status of corporate communications (vis--vis other established functions as human resources and finance) and its strategic familiarity in decision-making at the highest cor porate level. Claims that have been do to this effect include the arguments that varied communications disciplines should be consolidated in a single department, and that the head of this department should report directly to the CEO or the senior management team (or be a member of this team) to bolster and secure the functional expertise as well as the strategic interlocking of corporate communications in decision-making.Broom and Dozier (1986) and Grunig and Grunig (1998) characterized this involvement in organizational decision-making as peradventure most important to the communications practitioner than any other measure of professional growth. The guiding idea in this regard is that a direct reporting relationship to the CEO may be seen as an indication that there is indeed a broad, growing recognition among corporate administrator conductors and corporate bills that the ability to succeed will depend upon the firms ability to effectively communicate with its stakeholders and that therefore the communications function is recognized as an absolute, integral part of the top management function. White and Mazur (1995) have added that such a direct reporting relationship is also important as it leads to excellent communications management as senior management is counseled on issues, and stakeholder and identity considerations may more easily get accompanimentored into the process of organizational decision-making.The results from a number of studies indicate that in the large bulk of needs, there is indeed such a direct reporting relationship from the provide communications department to the CEO and/or executive team (e.g. Argenti and Forman, 2000 Cornelissen and Thorpe, 2001 Grunig and Grunig, 1998 Grunig et al. , 2002 Van Ruler and De Lange, 2003). In most large firms, such a direct reporting relationships consist of counseling and advising the CEO and senior executive team on stakeholder and reputation issues, rather than having a direct involvem ent (through a seat on the executive team) in corporate decision-making.In a recent study in the UK, Moss et al. (2000) found that within the take of companies studied communications directors report directly to the CEO or professorship of the senior management team, but were not formal members of the senior management team responsible for determining corporate system and strategic decision-making. In other words, all of the directors in the study indicated that they were a great deal consulted on important issues likely to affect their organizations, but their involvement in key operational decision-making was often limited to advising on how best to present policies to the outside world or to internal stakeholders (Moss et al. , 2000 299). Similarly, within companies such as Shell, Siemens and Nokia, the senior vice-president in the area of CC sits on the second-tier management team (one level beneath the senior executive team), and in that capacity advises and counsels the C EO and senior executive team regarding corporate decision-making.Political and Cultural IssuesThis is not to say, of course, that the communications director should not have a seat on the executive board and should re main in this advisory capacity, but the UK study did show the stream impediments to such a move. On the one hand, there is still a considerable lack of understanding and a lack of commitment to communications among senior managers. On the other hand, many senior communication practitioners often do not meet the needs of senior managers to provide communications advice and an input into corporate scheme in ways that contribute to the doing of organizational objectives and that affect the bottom line.In other words, strategic corporate communications stands or falls with highly qualified input from the communication practitioner at the decision-making table and only then will there be such a receptive environment for that function. The practitioner therefore needs to produce strategically focused recommendations for strategic corporate action bringing to the attention of top managers a broad understanding of the strategic management process and of those issues that may affect and impact upon a companys reputation (Cornelissen, 2004 Cropp and Pincus, 2001).Otherwise, communications will be seen as a largely tactical or functionary activity in which practitioners are considered communications technicians. Grunig et al. (2002) have argued that for many firms, the strategic potential of CC in its boundary-spanning role appears to go largely unrealized. This is the grapheme, Grunig et al. (2002) argue, as senior management equally tends to treat communications largely as a tactical function, have-to doe with primarily with the technical gathering of information and with carrying out publicity and onward motion campaigns to external audiences.Contribution of Work and ActivitiesThe persona and expending of work and activities carried out by commu nication practitioners takes place at three levels within large firms the corporate, market (or business-unit), and operational levels. Strategies and activities at the corporate level are touch on with the overall purpose (mission and vision) and scope of the firm to meet its various stakeholder expectations and needs. Strategies and activities at the market level are concerned with determining how the firm will compete successfully in particular markets. Strategies and activities at the operational level concern the way in which CC manages its own resources, processes and people to aid deliver corporate and market-level strategic goals.Central to the question of what type of share CC makes and whether this is located at the corporate, business-unit or strictly operational level, is the exposition and personation of the function as either strategic or tactical. As a strategic function, there is likely to be strategic involvement of communications practitioners in managerial de cision-making at the corporate and business-unit levels. Such a strategic view of communications, which in part has already been realized within the business world but in part is also still aspirational (Cornelissen, 2004), means that communications strategy is not just seen as a set of goals and tactics at the operational level at the level of the CC function but that its scope and involvement in fact stretches to corporate and business-unit-wide decisions and activities.At the corporate level, where strategy and activities are concerned with the corporate mission and vision as well as corporate positioning, communication practitioners can aid managers in developing strategies for interaction with the environment. In this sense, communication practitioners are directly compound or support strategic decision-making through their environmental scanning activities which may assist corporate strategy-makers in analyzing the organizations position and identifying emerging issues whic h may have significant implications for the firm and for future strategy development. intercourse practitioners can at this corporate level also bring identity questions and a stakeholder attitude into the strategic management process, representing the likely reaction of stakeholders to alternative strategy options, and thereby giving senior management a more balanced consideration to the attractiveness and feasibleness of the strategic options open to them.This happened in separately of the tetrad firms (Shell, Nokia, Philips, Siemens) in our good example studies. In addition, communications practitioners in these 4 companies also implemented the corporate strategy by helping to communicate the firms strategic intentions to both internal and external stakeholders, which may help avoid misunderstandings that might otherwise get in the way of the smooth implementation of the firms strategy. METHODOLOGYThis research uses a case study prelude to assess to asses the improved inter nal corporate communications in iv firms. Gerald R. Adams and Jay D. Schvaneveldt (1997) define the case study approach as an in-depth study of one or a limited number of cases in which each case is treated as a whole. The authors further added, The case study approach is particularly helpful when deeper understanding is needed and when there is little concern about generalizing to a large population (Adams & Schvaneveldt, 1997).These case studies were conducted with quaternion European corporations with real reputations with their stakeholders and the marketplace Nokia, Shell, Phillips and Siemens. These four corporations were selected chiefly for two reasons. Firstly, each of these four corporations is a multi-divisional firm operating under the like corporate umbrella. As such, they are typical of other large firms with a corporate communications (CC) presence as opposed to small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), where communications responsibilities and activities may not have evolved into one or more full-fl edged functional areas, let alone into a managerial function (cf Kotler and Mindak, 1978 ).Secondly, each of the four corporations has an excellent reputation in the eyes of their stakeholders and the general public according to ToMAC (Top of Mind Awareness of corporeal scars) s midpoints and reputation rankings published in recent years. The inclusion of these corporations therefore allows us to strain not only the range and kind of activities carried out within CC, but also to what extent these make a difference (given the potent reputations enjoyed by these four corporations).An uninflected case-study approach was chosen as most appropriate for our theory-building purposes (Yin, 2003). It allowed us to examine CC holistically and address each of the practice dimensions mentioned above. Interviews were conducted with up to four senior managers of each organization, for example, president of corporate communication and marketing communicat ion, communication managers within divisions, and if possible, a board member who is responsible for (corporate) brand communication.Here, a discipline guide was used with topics that are relevant in the context of the practice of CC. However, the guide left enough room for the respondent to communicate his or her particular views on in what way activities and dimensions (structure, political and heathenish issues, professionals) are linked and it prevented us from pre-structuring the concept of practice in any way.The topic guide consisted of the avocation themes communication organization (How are communications activities and the staff responsible for them departmentalized and structured within the corporation? What organizational processes and facilities exist to support communications? What is the professional ethos and husbandry of communications staff and of people in other departments of the corporation?), communications work (What is the general view of people within the corporation (ie the CEO and senior managers, marketing staff, communications staff, and others) of communications and its role and piece to the corporation?How is decision-making concerning communications strategy organized? What does the process of communications strategy formation look like, in both corporate and market-led communications? What general activities does your job involve?) and communications professionals (What is the general write of communications practitioners working in the corporation? How are communications staff recruited and selected? What training and development initiatives and trajectories exist for communications staff?). We analyzed the info by looking for common themes across the interviewees and four corporations and by identifying cogitate between the dimensions of CC practice.MAIN ARGUMENTThe practice of CC was conceptualized by circumscribing in very broad damage four dimensions (1) the roles, skills and activities of practitioners, (2) th e organization of these practitioners and their work, (3) political and cultural issues that contextualize and mediate these activities, and (4) the communication and consumption of the process and products of activities performed. Throughout discussion, and in the course of the primary research with Shell, Phillips, Siemens and Nokia, I identified two central processes in the practice of CC that cut across these four dimensions, and appear to be central to the field.The first process labeled as strategic positioning describes the ongoing efforts of communication practitioners to position themselves as presumable communications managers to senior executives within the executive team and in other functions by developing staff, by finding appropriate mechanisms for coordinating work, by developing value-added activities and by communicating the contribution of CC.Underlying this process is by chance the realization that communication practitioners need to enact managerial roles thro ugh management activities like environmental scanning, counseling and strategic planning that demonstrably add value to the corporation, and that they need to vie for an organizational arrangement that gives them a central, perceptible place in the firm from where to counsel and support senior management as well as managers in other functional areas. To illustrate, within Siemens the emphasis on corporate branding and the development of a corporate brand architecture was presented as central to the corporate strategy of the firmWe have to influence decisions about what businesses do we invest in and brand as Siemens and what businesses we do not want to be in We have a clear business strategy go for profit and growth , which sounds really general but behind this is an intense and very detailed program, the Siemens management system, which our branding architecture and systems tie into. The overall corporate target is to attain intercontinental leadership in each of the busine sses that we are active in. fear success is the most important thing and that is driving the brand values and the brand strategy (Director of Brand Architecture).There is a constant concern with the strategic positioning of corporate branding and corporate communications, not just to increase and communicate the period performance but also to secure a receptive environment at the senior management table.The head of corporate communication worldwide is a close advisor of our CEO. In fact, the incoming CEO, Kleinfeld, has a doctorate on the topic of corporate identity, and has a deep understanding of branding and communications (Vice President Corporate Brand and Design).A second process that we identified involves what we term cultural readjustment which describes how CC, its practitioners, its organization and the general way in whichit is practiced is embedded in the cultural context of the firm. Effectively, the choices made by Philips, Nokia, Shell and Siemens regarding staff ing, training and development, structuring and the model of communication strategy development are all highly varied, yet linked to the core of their business, history and finale.Such variety and cultural adaptation may point to what Gratton and Ghoshal (2005) call signature practices practices and processes that embody a company s character and are therefore somewhat unique and idiosyncratic, rather than general and public for the entire industry. Signature practices are linked with the core values of the organization and evolve from a company-specific history and are embedded in its gardening and core values.Within Philips, as mentioned, corporate communications is seen as a part of an Organization-wide technocratic engineering culture where every function and the work processes involved are documented and standardized, so that these can be constantly monitored, updated and optimized. Work processes (e.g. media inquiries) within corporate communications have equally been docum ented and standardized in flow-charts and worksheets (following ISO quality specifications). This kind of signature process may not work in other companies in the consumer electronics industry (or indeed other industries) as it is tied to Philips core cultural values and company history.Within Nokia, in contrast, the corporate vision of connecting people together with the fact that members of the company have a strong bond between them ( having embarked on the technological journey together ) has led to an informal , innovative and can-do culture of knowledge sharing and of coordinating work processes. There are little formalized work patterns or lines of communication between communication professionals within Nokia they rather liaise frequently and informally with one another.CONCLUSIONS The preceding partition is the conclusion on the practice perspective on CC and conceptualized the important dimensions of this perspective. These are (1) the roles, skills and activiti es of practitioners, (2) the organization of these practitioners and their work, (3) political and cultural issues that contextualize and mediate these activities, and (4) the communication and consumption of the process and products of activities performed. Together, these dimensions (see Table 1) provide a framework for considering the practice of CC in its entirety and in a untold more plenary manner than previous work has done.Table 1 Summary of the practice conceptualization of corporate communicationsDimension ThemesRoles and activities of Manager vs technicianpractitioners Generalist vs specialist Professional development, status and contributionOrganization of Departmental arrangementcommunication work Reporting relationship and/or seat on executive team Centralization vs decentralizationPolitical and cultural issuesStatus of communication practitioners and their work Added value of communication activities Cultural accommodationContribution of work and activitie s Strategic or tactical contributionInput into corporate strategy and decision- makingInterface between communication and otherFunctional areas (e.g. Finance, serviceman Resources, etc)I also articulated two processes (strategic positioning and cultural accommodation) that appear to be central to the practice of CC. In all, the practice-based conceptualization of CC makes the following contributions. First, it has started to open up the black loge of the organization in which CC activities take place. CC is conceptualized as an organizational phenomenon rather than a large strategy problem detached from the internal dynamics of the organization.Internal politics, structure and cultural issues are introduced into the field of managing CC, not as inevitable failings or difficulties within firms, but as significant for communications strategy outcomes, perhaps even as attributes to be exploited positively for the status and contribution of CC. Second, the practice conceptualizatio n of CC has started to humanize the field (cf Pettigrew et al., 2002 12).Unlike much prior work that has focused on the strategic outcomes of CC activities (e.g. strong reputations and relationships with stakeholders), a practice perspective populates the field of CC with human beings. In effect, all forces and activities are seen to emerge from human action from the actions and contributions of communications practitioners, as well as the reactions by senior managers and managers in other functional areas (human resources, finance, etc.) of the firm.Third, and related to the previous points, the view of CC as practice has started to explore the agency of communications practitioners to bring about changes in corporate strategy and in the interaction between the firm and its environment, amidst general professional as well as situational constraints (Whittington, 1988 ). Practitioners can be captured in wider professional belief systems about their roles and work that is, the afo rementioned distinction between manager and technician roles (Pieczka and L Etang, 2000) that effect and constrain their possibilities for action.Similarly, the political and structural aspects of the work situation in their firms that is, whether there is a receptive environment among senior managers for an input from CC, and whether communications practitioners are located in departments with access (through a reporting relationship or seat on the management team) to senior management at the corporate level of the firm effects the micro activities and agency of communication practitioners.Fourth, a practice perspective and our case studies suggest that there are clear interrelations between the roles and backgrounds of practitioners, their activities, the political and cultural situation surrounding their work, the way in which they are organized, and their input and contribution to the firm at the corporate and market levels of the firm. As such, it connects macro phenomena wi th micro explanations.It does not deny the importance of research that has raised the awareness of key macro issues and challenges the challenge of achieving and sustaining strong corporate reputations with stakeholders, of identifying and building on unique organizational assets or the corporate identity of the firm, of managing international communications for multinational firms. Instead, it extends such macro level accounts with descriptions and explanations of the practices and activities that underpin and constitute such phenomena. In addition, as our case studies demonstrated, the practice of CC consists of interrelated dimensions, and as such we extend prior perspectives that have narrowly focused on either dimension or only on the strategic outcomes of CC activities.Any change in strategic outcomes (i.e. stronger corporate reputations with stakeholders) is not simply a case of a productive campaign or of improving one dimension (e.g. reputation measure to demonstrate acc ountability) but ultimately depends on a whole range of factors, including the professional roles and competencies of practitioners and the way in which they are organized. Table 2 summarizes the main differences between a practice perspective on CC and the more traditional perspectives on CC that have primarily focused on macro strategic outcomes.Table 2 A practice perspective versus traditional perspectives on corporatecommunicationsTraditional perspectives on CC A practice perspective on CCPrimary focus Macro strategic outcomes Micro practitioners, processes and (reputations and reputation structures within the organizationmeasurement)Explanations of deductive infer best practices from Inductive grounded in the actualPerformance reputation scores across firms activities of professionals and how these add value and make a contribution to a firmKey strategic Alignment between the reputation Strategic positioning and culturalprocesses and the identity or positioning accommod ation within the firm communicatedA fifth contribution concerns its practical implications. A practice perspective on CC extends macro level explanations of CC as outcomes of what goes on in organizations to the activities that constitute them. This perspective is concerned with the same strategic issues of importance to senior managers and communication practitioners (i.e. how to build and maintain strong corporate reputations with stakeholders of the firm?), but in terms of the organizational activities and practices, which are their fabric. As such, it provides a more comprehensive and detailed picture of how communications is and indeed can be managed.The relationships between the practice dimensions (i.e. the backgrounds of practitioners, their activities, the political and cultural situation surrounding their work, the way in which they are organized, and their input and contribution to the firm at the corporate and market levels of the firm) in particular provide managers and communication practitioners with concrete factors or attributes that can be understood and, if needed, challenged or manipulated. To communications practitioners, the profound implication is not only a greater understanding of their work but also suggestions and prescriptions for how their work can be changed or improved.More specifically, if practitioners aspire a developmental shift from a tactical or craft orientation to communications, characterized by technician role enactment and communications service departments or units carrying out low-level communication mechanics, to a strategic management function, they know that they need to enact managerial roles through management activities like environmental scanning, counseling and strategic planning that demonstrably add value to the corporation, and that they need to vie for an organizational arrangement that gives them a central, recognizable place in the firm from where to counsel and support senior management as well as mana gers in other functional areas.The two processes of strategic positioning and cultural accommodation that we observed in our four case studies may also be taken to hand by practitioners to bring about changes in their firms in such a way that these changes are in line with their firms culture and improve the performance and standing of CC.Recommendations for ResearchIn sum, the practice conceptualization of CC suggests a need to put the micro into macro in order to both uncover plausible linkages to performance (with stakeholder groups) and to offer tangible guides to managerial action. Some important insights, albeit preliminary and illustrative, on micro issues in CC are offered through our four case studies. However, beyond these preliminary case studies, we make two main recommendations in line with this research agenda.First, we recommend further small sample in-depth studies of CC within firms, to develop the contextual and holistic understanding of the practice dimension s of CC that is essential to unpacking the complex driving forces of the management of CC and its strategic outcomes with stakeholders of the firm. In-depth studies, particularly at this early stage of theoretical development on CC, are a necessary feature of furthering the conceptualization and understanding of CC as an area of practice.Second, we recommend process research as a methodology for capturing and explaining how the practice of CC evolves within fi rms. butt against research is concerned with understanding how things evolve over time and wherefore they evolve in this way (see Langley, 1999 Van de Ven and Huber, 1990), and process data therefore consist largely of stories about what happened and who did what when that is, events, activities, and choices ordered over time.In his unpolluted work on organization theory, Mohr (1982) makes a distinction between what he calls variance theory and process theory. Whereas variance theories provide explanations for phenomena in terms of relationships among dependent and independent variables (eg more of X and more of Y produce more of Z ), process theories provide explanations in terms of the sequence of events leading to an outcome (eg do A and then B to get C). Temporal ordering and probabilistic interaction between entities are important here (Mohr, 1982).Within the context of CC, the emphasis is with process research on understanding patterns in events (eg the link between activities and tools of communication practitioners and changes in stakeholder reputations), either as a narrative pattern or analytic sequence of events. Such process research then consists of longitudinal case studies or event-history methods, often with the researcher immersing him / herself in the firm and collecting close-grained qualitative data through interviews, (participative) observations and analyses of company reports and documents. 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